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One in five people in the United States had a sexually transmitted infection (STI) on any given day in 2018, totaling nearly 68 million estimated infections. STIs are often asymptomatic (especially in women) and are therefore often undiagnosed and unreported. Untreated STIs can have severe health consequences, including chronic pelvic pain, infertility, miscarriage or newborn death, and increased risk of HIV infection, genital and oral cancers, neurological and rheumatological effects. In light of this, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, through the National Association of County and City Health Officials, commissioned the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to convene a committee to examine the prevention and control of sexually transmitted infections in the United States and provide recommendations for action.
These guidelines for the treatment of patients who have sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) after consultation with a group of professionals knowledgeable in the field of STDs who met in Atlanta on September 26-28, 2000. The information in this report updates the 1998 Guidelines for Treatment of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (MMWR 1998;47 [No. RR-1]). Included in these updated guidelines are new alternative regimens for scabies, bacterial vaginosis, early syphilis, and granuloma inguinale; an expanded section on the diagnosis of genital herpes (including type-specific serologic tests); new recommendations for treatment of recurrent genital herpes among persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); a revised approach to the management of victims of sexual assault; expanded regimens for the treatment of urethral meatal warts; and inclusion of hepatitis C as a sexually transmitted infection. In addition, these guidelines emphasize education and counseling for persons infected with human papillomavirus, clarify the diagnostic evaluation of congenital syphilis, and present information regarding the emergence of quinolone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae and implications for treatment. Recommendations also are provided for vaccine-preventable STDs, including hepatitis A and hepatitis B.
The pre-columbian hypothesis. The advocates of this hypothesis claim that not only syphilis was widely spread in both Old and New World, but also the other treponemal diseases. In Europe, most of these conditions were mistaken for leprosy [3]. According to this hypothesis, pinta occurred in Afro-Asian zone by the year 15.000 BC, having an animal reservoir. Yaws appeared as a consequence of the mutations in pinta around 10.000 BC and spread allover the world, except for the American continent which was isolated. The endemic syphilis emerged from jaws by the selection of several treponemas, as a consequence of climate changes (the appearance of the arid climate) around 7000 BC. Around 3000 BC the sexually transmitted syphilis emerged from endemic syphilis in South-Western Asia, due to lower temperatures of the post-glacial era and spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Initially it manifested as a mild disease, eventually aggravated and grew in virulence, suffering from several mutations, at the end of the 15th century [2,3].
Sexual transmitted diseases were seen as a single disease for many centuries. The differentiation between gonorrhea, cancroids and syphilis as distinct maladies was achieved no earlier than XIXth century. In the beginning of XVIIIth century there were several doctors who treated syphilis and gonorrhea as separate entities. However, in 1767 John Hunter a famous physician of venereal diseases at that time (1728-1793) conducted an experiment consisting of an inoculation of the urethral secretion of a gonorrhea patient in the prepuce of a healthy patient, the last developing syphilis shortly afterwards. Consequently, his experiment proved that syphilis resulted from gonorrhea. What Hunter has missed out was that the patient from whom the urethral secretion was taken had both syphilis and gonorrhea. However his experiment, widely acknowledged in his époque, delayed the differential diagnosis of the two diseases with a few decades [7,30].
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are one of the most under-recognized health problems worldwide. While extremely common, STIs are difficult to track. Many people with these infections do not have symptoms and remain undiagnosed. Further, diseases that are diagnosed are frequently not reported and counted. Most of the published data on the prevalence and incidence of STIs come from developed countries.
Other strategies to prevent STIs in SA include health education, early diagnosis and treatment, contact tracing, and routine screening of blood and organ donors, pregnant women, newborns of infected mothers, prisoners, intravenous drug users, patients with other sexually transmitted infections, and expatriates pre-employment for HIV, syphilis, and viral hepatitis B and C. Partners of patients with STIs are informed and counseled on the appropriate preventive measures and the required tests and, when necessary, treatment.
The author thanks all the staff who reported sexually transmitted infections to the regional Ministry of Health offices, the staff in these offices who submitted the data summaries to the main office in Riyadh, and the staff in the Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Ministry of Health, Riyadh, who compiled the data.
Congenital syphilis is on the rise in New Jersey. Congenital syphilis occurs when syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease, is passed from a mother to her fetus in pregnancy. It can cause severe, potentially life-threatening health problems in newborns.
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections that can be transmitted through sexual contact with an infected individual. These are also termed sexually transmitted infections or STIs. STDs can be transmitted during vaginal or other types of sexual intercourse including oral and anal sex, but some are acquired simply by skin-to-skin contact.
The Sexual Health Clinic at 15 Waller Street (RBJ Health Center, 1st Floor) provides evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. Call 512-972-5430 to schedule an appointment. Clinic hours are 8am to 12 noon and 1pm to 5pm Monday through Friday. The fee for examination and treatment is $20, which includes all laboratory testing. NOTE: We can only test for Genital Herpes if you have active symptoms.
In general, the studies reported low levels of awareness and knowledge of sexually transmitted diseases, with the exception of HIV/AIDS. Although, as shown by some of the findings on condom use, knowledge does not always translate into behaviour change, adolescents' sex education is important for STD prevention, and the school setting plays an important role. Beyond HIV/AIDS, attention should be paid to infections such as chlamydia, gonorrhoea and syphilis.
We conducted this systematic review in order to determine awareness and knowledge of school-going adolescents in Europe of sexually transmitted diseases, not only concerning HIV/AIDS, but also other STDs such as chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis and human papillomavirus (HPV). Where possible we will identify differences in awareness and knowledge by key demographic variables such as age and gender, and how awareness has changed over time.
Studies were selected if they reported on awareness and/or knowledge of one or more sexually transmitted disease(s) among school-attending adolescents in a European country, or in Europe as a whole, and were published in English or German.
Awareness of the HPV vaccine was also very low, with 5.8% and 1.1% of adolescents surveyed in the studies by Gottvall et al. and Höglund et al. respectively, reporting being aware of the vaccine [46, 47]. Whereas only 2.9% and 9.2% of adolescents in these two Swedish studies were aware that HPV is sexually transmitted, the proportion was 60.6% in the Italian study [48]. A minority of adolescents knew that HPV is a risk factor for cervical cancer: 1.2% in the study by Höglund et al. [47] and 8.1% in the study by Gottvall et al. [46]. Among the adolescents who participated in the survey by Pelucchi et al., 48.6% were aware that the aim of the HPV vaccine is to prevent cervical cancer [48]. Among female adolescents who participated in the study by Gottvall et al., 11.8% did not believe they would be infected with HPV [46]. The proportion was 55% among female participants in the study by Pelucchi et al. [48]. The latter study surveyed pupils aged 14-20 years but did not report on age differences in awareness.
In the studies where this was asked, a large majority of the adolescents knew that HIV is caused by a virus, [36, 41] is sexually transmitted,[36, 41, 43, 47, 49] and that sharing a needle with an infected person may lead to infection with the virus [36, 41, 43, 49]. Statistically significant age specific differences in knowledge on mode of HIV-transmission were reported in the study conducted in Germany [49]. Compared to 13 and 15 year old pupils, a higher proportion of 14 year old pupils correctly identified the level of risk of HIV-transmission associated with bleeding wounds, intravenous drug use and sexual contact. For the latter mode of transmission, the lowest proportion of correct answers was observed among 16 year old pupils. Generally the proportion of respondents correctly reporting that use of condoms helps protect against contraction of HIV was above 90%. The only exception was in the Russian study conducted by Lunin et al. in 1993, in which only 42% of females and 60% of males were aware of this fact [39]. In the same study, only 15% of the adolescents perceived themselves 'not at risk' of contracting HIV (Table 3).
Two factors appeared to have influenced awareness. The first was of a methodological nature and related to the fact whether an open or closed question was posed. Of the studies included in the review which assessed awareness, all but one used closed-form questions only. The adolescents either had to identify sexually transmitted diseases from a given list of diseases, or the question was in a yes/no format. Initially, Höglund et al. asked participating adolescents to list all STDs known to them and then later on, if they had ever heard of HPV. Only one participant (0.2%) mentioned HPV as one of the STDs known to them, but later, 24 (5.4%) reported to have heard of HPV [47]. In comparison to open-form questions, closed questions are not only more practical and easier to respond to, but also easier to code and analyse. One of the arguments raised against closed questions, especially where a list of possible answers is given, is the risk of guesswork. It can not be ruled out that some participants, unable to answer the question, will select answers at random [50, 51]. In the study by Garside et al. for example, among year 9 pupils, 14.5% incorrectly identified plasmodium, and 20.6% filariasis from a given list as STDs [42]. Open questions have been recommended for surveying participants with unknown or varying knowledge/awareness [50] as these questions provide a more valid picture of the state of knowledge [51]. 153554b96e
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